The Sierra Nevada consists of an enormous mass of highland extending from the village of Padul, on the road from Granada to Motril, to the village of Gergal, on the railway line from Linares to Almería, with the high peaks of Mulhacén and Veleta at the centre of the system. A great deal of research and exploration is yet to be done in the central area, but from evidence so far accumulated it seems that there has been land in this zone since lower Permian times, with intermittent invasions of the Betic sea. In Jurassic and early Tertiary times, however, this land appears to have been less extensive, and there were large geosynclines to the north and south of the present mountains, containing seas in which were laid down sediments which were later folded and incorporated into the present systems.
The major fold movements took place in Miocene times, a little after the fold movements in the rest of Spain, and from a geological point of view the mountains have one very interesting feature. They reveal definite Alpine phenomena in the structure of the folds, particularly in the nappes which outcrop in the central areas. Such intensive folding served to emphasize the line of crustal weakness underlying the whole region, so that earthquakes, while not excessive in number, occur more frequently than in other parts of Spain. The number of seismic disturbances averages three per year, but this figure may be exceeded occasionally, as in 1911, when there were eleven. The epicentre of such movements is frequently of exceptional depth. Even while they were emerging, the mountains were subject to subaerial denudation, and huge accumulations of fluvial deposits appeared on their flanks, which now form some of the arid foothills to the north of the Sierra Nevada. These later deposits are almost undisturbed and therefore horizontal, and have been deeply dissected by modern streams.
Rocks exposed in the area show great diversity of age and substance, ranging from ancient Archaean granite to younger sedimentaries, such as limestone. The folding took place without great volcanic activity so that recent volcanic rocks are absent; there is, however, a large amount of granite and other crystalline rock in the centre (as, for example, micaceous schist) associated with the Veleta nappe, where ancient underlying rock has been forced up as an extrusion and subsequently exposed through weathering. From this Archaean core the rocks become progressively younger outwards, passing through Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks, through Mesozoic to younger sedimentaries, amongst which limestone is important, if only because it gives rise to completely arid, as opposed to almost arid, hills. Various minerals like lead, zinc and silver are associated with the older rocks, while iron occurs, though infrequently, in some of the younger rocks. Mineral waters are also found in a few places, as at Alhama, but difficulty of access prevents their being used on a large scale.
The higher region was covered by a small ice-cap during Quarternary glaciation, and ice has helped to fashion the surface features, particularly on the northern and western slopes, where insolation was less pronounced. There is much evidence of ice action; erratic blocks are sometimes found, but these are less obvious features than the mounds of glacial material, or moraine. Between the peaks of Mulhacén existed a large glacier, which has left an expanse of lateral moraine, about 1½ miles long, between Tajo de Culo de Perro and Cortijo de las Vacas; another morainic deposit may be found below the Loma de Dilar. Many corries still exist, some, like that at the head of the valley of Siete Lagunas, revealing a stepped appearance similar to the cirques á gradin, or Kartreppe found in the French or Swiss Alps. Sometimes the corries are filled with water, such as the Lagunilla de Mulhacén, and the Laguna de las Yeguas. There still exists a small remnant of the former ice in the hoyas, or hollows, of Mulhacén and Veleta; in both cases ice remains in the hollows all the year round. Some geographers refer to these patches of ice as glaciers, but since they cover an area small in comparison with Alpine glaciers, and since the ice scarcely moves, they cannot be termed glaciers in the strict sense of the word.
River action is more marked than ice action in the high zones; most geographers agree that the tremendously steep-sided valleys owe their present appearance not to ice but to the work of streams, which have great force in a region of such steep gradients. The dryness of the climate compared with that of most other high mountains has prevented lateral erosion from keeping pace with vertical erosion, and has produced valleys that are almost gorges. Routeways are possible in the valleys and gorges, but the construction of roads and railways is very difficult in the land immediately adjacent to them. On the lower foothills especially, where the rock is softer, gullying is marked, a reminder of infrequent but torrential storms. Where the rivers emerge on to the plains there is usually a large alluvial fan; such features are obvious on the west side of the Sierra Nevada, where many short streams debouch on to the plain of the Genil.
The topography of this mountain range, whether in the high ranges or the lower foothills, is imposing. An atlas map shows the general arrangement of hill masses and streams; it cannot, however, reveal the interesting local details. The central ridge contains the highest peaks and acts as a divide between the rivers, climate, cultivation and human activities of the north and south slopes. It runs almost due east-west, starting at El Caballo (10,581 feet) and passing through Veleta (11,128 feet), Mulhacén (11,420 feet) and the Alcazaba (11,185 feet) continues in the same direction, but at a lower level until the Cerros de Almirez (8,400 feet) is reached. The appearance of the actual peaks is often the result of structure rather than of erosion. Thus Mulhacén, a great granitic monolith, has a relatively rounded top; Veleta, composed partly of micaceous slates, has a very gentle slope to the south but a precipitous slope to the north, while the heights composed of younger rocks show rounded monotonous outlines if derived of softer material, but sharp, jagged peaks if of limestone.
High elevation and a low latitudinal position combine to make the climate of the Sierra Nevada a unique feature of the European mainland. The climate is basically Mediterranean, but many other factors have to be considered. In the first instance height reduces pressure; this sometimes induces slight mountain sickness. The effect of pressure, however, is not as great as that of increased insolation. Above 7,000 feet the light is strong, and some protection for the eyes is advisable, while the effect on the human skin can be dangerous. There are great extremes of temperature, both annual and diurnal. By day the summer temperature in direct sun may be well over 120° F., although on the heights shade temperatures may be as little as 45° F.; at night the temperature drops very suddenly to as little as 38° F., as a result of great radiation of heat from almost bare rock into air that contains no 'blanketing' cloud. In winter temperatures in the sun often reach over 65° F., though the whole mass of highland carries continuous snow well into spring. Much of the sun's energy at this time of year is reflected back from the snow, and for this reason springs tend to be late, particularly on the northern slopes.
To the south of La Linea
To the south of La Linea (literally 'the line' -- i.e. the boundary line) lies a large rock, separated from the mainland by a flat sandy waste. It was first settled by the Moors in A.D. 711, and its present name is a corruption of the name of their leader, Tarik; 'Djebel el Tarik' (now named Gibraltar) originally meant 'Tarik's hill'. It has been a British Colony since the 1713 treaty of Utrecht, controls the western entrance. into the Mediterranean, and is a perpetual insult to patriotic Spanish pride. The 'Rock', as its name implies, is simply a large outlier of limestone; the problem of water supply has been overcome by the construction on the eastern slope of large concrete slabs which collect dew and rain.
Gibraltar's annual rainfall is high (35 inches), when compared with that of nearby Málaga (1808 inches), and is due mainly to the easy passage through the straits of depressions, which give rise to heavy winter rain, although there are three months of drought in summer. Strategically of vital importance, economically it is of little use. There is some tinning of fish and fruit, using labour from the Spanish mainland, but Gibraltar is chiefly concerned with goods in transit and with the supplying of bunker coal and petroleum to ships entering for refuelling purposes. The peninsular railway terminus is at Algeciras, which faces Gibraltar across the Bay of Algeciras, and is also the Spanish embarkation point for North Africa. Gibraltar is linked to Spain only by a road, which crosses the air-strips built on the low flat northern end of the tiny peninsula; air services to all parts of the world are frequent, and on the western side of the Rock lie the well-equipped harbour and naval dockyards.
The Barbary Apes live among the higher crags, existing on scant vegetation, and are occasionally enticed from their rocky heights for the benefit of tourists. The human inhabitants live in the town on the south-western side, their houses clinging precariously to the steep rugged slopes.
This south coast region, one of the richest and pleasantest areas in Spain, owes many of its characteristics to the huge mass of highland behind it. The Sierra Nevada shelters the plains from cold winds, and this, combined with a southerly aspect, ensures a high average annual temperature. The mountains attract a good deal of moisture, and retain a cover of snow well into spring, thus ensuring a perennial water supply for the plains below. In addition, they form a barrier passable only at a few points, making communication with the rest of Spain slow and difficult, but helping at the same time to preserve local customs. The sea is the other dominating influence, helping communications and ameliorating climate. South Spain looks away from the mainland over the Mediterranean to the Barbary States; and it is not surprising to find much of North African origin in the names, customs and people of this lovely Moorish oasis tucked away on the fringe of Europe.
Gibraltar's annual rainfall is high (35 inches), when compared with that of nearby Málaga (1808 inches), and is due mainly to the easy passage through the straits of depressions, which give rise to heavy winter rain, although there are three months of drought in summer. Strategically of vital importance, economically it is of little use. There is some tinning of fish and fruit, using labour from the Spanish mainland, but Gibraltar is chiefly concerned with goods in transit and with the supplying of bunker coal and petroleum to ships entering for refuelling purposes. The peninsular railway terminus is at Algeciras, which faces Gibraltar across the Bay of Algeciras, and is also the Spanish embarkation point for North Africa. Gibraltar is linked to Spain only by a road, which crosses the air-strips built on the low flat northern end of the tiny peninsula; air services to all parts of the world are frequent, and on the western side of the Rock lie the well-equipped harbour and naval dockyards.
The Barbary Apes live among the higher crags, existing on scant vegetation, and are occasionally enticed from their rocky heights for the benefit of tourists. The human inhabitants live in the town on the south-western side, their houses clinging precariously to the steep rugged slopes.
This south coast region, one of the richest and pleasantest areas in Spain, owes many of its characteristics to the huge mass of highland behind it. The Sierra Nevada shelters the plains from cold winds, and this, combined with a southerly aspect, ensures a high average annual temperature. The mountains attract a good deal of moisture, and retain a cover of snow well into spring, thus ensuring a perennial water supply for the plains below. In addition, they form a barrier passable only at a few points, making communication with the rest of Spain slow and difficult, but helping at the same time to preserve local customs. The sea is the other dominating influence, helping communications and ameliorating climate. South Spain looks away from the mainland over the Mediterranean to the Barbary States; and it is not surprising to find much of North African origin in the names, customs and people of this lovely Moorish oasis tucked away on the fringe of Europe.
Málaga, Almería, La Linea, Algeciras, Estepona
Málaga, lying on the Mediterranean coast east of the mouth of the Guadalmedina, is Phoenician in origin, and contains many Roman and Arab remains, some of which have been recently excavated. The blast furnaces of this town are now inactive, but there are factories for the making of chemicals, soap, cotton goods, metal goods, flour, sugar, spirits and wines of international repute. The major exports are wines, fruits and nuts. Close to Málaga is the small tourist resort of Torremolinos, which possesses a stretch of fine sand almost 4 miles long, and is one of the bestknown holiday centres of this 'Costa del Sol'. Málaga is also an important route centre; it contains the most southerly of the Spanish airports, and controls the coast roads as well as those leading north to Antequera and Loja. It is, in addition, linked to Córdoba and eventually to Madrid by a railway which follows the tortuous valley of the Guadalhorce.
Almería serves the eastern end of the Sierra Nevada range, and manufactures cord, esparto goods and azulejos. The magnificent site of its port, sheltered by the Gulf of Almería, is wasted because of the limited hinterland and difficulty of communications with the interior. Exports include grapes, esparto goods, almonds, salt (evaporated from nearby saltings), and lead mined in the hills to the north. Like Málaga, it has a railway link with Granada and eventually with Madrid, but this line is not so well served by fast and well-equipped trains as is that from Málaga. Towns between Málaga and Almería have to rely solely on road transport, and roads are not good, since irregular terrain makes their construction difficult.
La Linea is an important town, of recent growth, opposite Gibraltar. Originally an agricultural centre, its proximity to Gibraltar has greatly increased its commercial activity, and many of its inhabitants work in the canning factories and naval dockyards of Gibraltar.
Algeciras is an important port for fishing and for trade with North Africa, as well as being the terminus of the trans-Iberian railway. It is an active market and commercial centre, and manufactures corks and earthenware. The extreme warmth of the town in winter has given rise to an out-of-season tourist industry.
Estepona is a centre for the fertile land around it, where grapes, oranges and lemons are particularly important. Furniture, wooden boxes and crates are manufactured from timber obtained from the fine woods of pinsapo pine that clothe the slopes of the Sierra Nevada to the north of the town. Further along the coast lead is smelted and exported from Adra.
Almería serves the eastern end of the Sierra Nevada range, and manufactures cord, esparto goods and azulejos. The magnificent site of its port, sheltered by the Gulf of Almería, is wasted because of the limited hinterland and difficulty of communications with the interior. Exports include grapes, esparto goods, almonds, salt (evaporated from nearby saltings), and lead mined in the hills to the north. Like Málaga, it has a railway link with Granada and eventually with Madrid, but this line is not so well served by fast and well-equipped trains as is that from Málaga. Towns between Málaga and Almería have to rely solely on road transport, and roads are not good, since irregular terrain makes their construction difficult.
La Linea is an important town, of recent growth, opposite Gibraltar. Originally an agricultural centre, its proximity to Gibraltar has greatly increased its commercial activity, and many of its inhabitants work in the canning factories and naval dockyards of Gibraltar.
Algeciras is an important port for fishing and for trade with North Africa, as well as being the terminus of the trans-Iberian railway. It is an active market and commercial centre, and manufactures corks and earthenware. The extreme warmth of the town in winter has given rise to an out-of-season tourist industry.
Estepona is a centre for the fertile land around it, where grapes, oranges and lemons are particularly important. Furniture, wooden boxes and crates are manufactured from timber obtained from the fine woods of pinsapo pine that clothe the slopes of the Sierra Nevada to the north of the town. Further along the coast lead is smelted and exported from Adra.
The South Coast - Spain
The South Coast, though smaller, has many features in common with the Levant coast. Physically, the region consists of an alternation of alluvial lowlands and barren hills, but the plains are small, and the uplands less pronounced, especially as they lie parallel to the coast, and form no spectacular headlands. Of the plains, those of Almería, Motril, Málaga and Vélez Málaga are most important. The names of the highlands backing the plains are, from west to east, the Massif of Tolox, north of Marbella, the Sierra de Alhama, the Alpujarras and the Sierra de Gádor. Mulhacén, the highest peak in Spain (11,420 feet), is only 23 miles from the sea, which is visible from villages on its southern flanks. The proximity of sea coast to the highest peak gives an exceptionally steep gradient to the slope. Consequently the rivers of the area are short and swift flowing. Nearly all have names with the prefix guad, derived from the Arabic wadi (river). There are the Guadalhorce, Guadiaro, and the Guadalfeo which comes to the sea at Motril. The Horcajar, which waters the Almerian plains, is also important. All are used for irrigation near their mouths and some, for example the Guadiaro and Guadalhorce, form valuable routeways through mountain passes.
The frequent passage of depressions in winter, and its littoral position, combine to give this area a higher annual rainfall than that of parts of the Levant coast; nevertheless, the annual total still remains low -- Málaga receives 1808 inches, and Almería 1805 inches, as compared with the very low figure of 1306 inches for Cartagena. Summer temperatures are high, especially so inland away from the moderating action of the sea, but at the coast the high humidity in summer counterbalances the alleviating effect of marine influence.
With slopes facing the sun, valleys and coast sheltered from cold or very strong winds by high mountains, and water available for irrigation from many perennial streams, augmented by rainfall, the area is naturally well endowed for agricultural pursuits. The fertile irrigated plains are here called 'vegas', as in the rest of Andalusia; this word, believed to be Iberian in origin (the prefix be in Basque means low), generally refers to a low-lying, flat, open and uncultivated plain. Perhaps in Andalusia the long association of cultivation with flat lowlands has caused this slight confusion of ideas; whatever the cause, it should be remembered that a vega in Andalusia has more in common with a huerta of Valencia than with a vega (for example the desolate, barren and scarcely cultivated Vega de Tera, near the river Esla) in northern Spain.
The fertility of alluvial soil is here augmented by small-scale irrigation schemes, some of Arab origin and design, which enable a great profusion of both tropical and Mediterranean crops to be grown. Sugar cane, bananas, rice and cotton flourish, sufficient indication of a beneficent climate, while Almería and Málaga produce several varieties of grapes, those from Almería providing table grapes and a medium quality of wine, and those from Málaga providing rich sweet wines of muscatel type. Olives thrive on the drier hill-slopes, particularly at Alora and Vélez Málaga, and cork oaks occur near Málaga and around Níjar, where extensive new groves, recently planted, have not yet come into bearing. Beyond the cultivated zones there are vast areas of exceptional aridity, such as the Alpujarras, where cultivation is impossible. In fact the south coast consists of small cultivated plots of incredible fertility -- oases of green in a dry, dusty upland.
Some minerals are found in this area, for example iron and a little gold at Rodalquilar in Almería, but as deposits are small they are not extensively worked. There is no industrial area, but industry, such as it is, is concentrated in the main towns. Fishing takes place along the coast, and the catch, for local use only, includes anchovies, sardines, tunny, squid and lobsters.
The frequent passage of depressions in winter, and its littoral position, combine to give this area a higher annual rainfall than that of parts of the Levant coast; nevertheless, the annual total still remains low -- Málaga receives 1808 inches, and Almería 1805 inches, as compared with the very low figure of 1306 inches for Cartagena. Summer temperatures are high, especially so inland away from the moderating action of the sea, but at the coast the high humidity in summer counterbalances the alleviating effect of marine influence.
With slopes facing the sun, valleys and coast sheltered from cold or very strong winds by high mountains, and water available for irrigation from many perennial streams, augmented by rainfall, the area is naturally well endowed for agricultural pursuits. The fertile irrigated plains are here called 'vegas', as in the rest of Andalusia; this word, believed to be Iberian in origin (the prefix be in Basque means low), generally refers to a low-lying, flat, open and uncultivated plain. Perhaps in Andalusia the long association of cultivation with flat lowlands has caused this slight confusion of ideas; whatever the cause, it should be remembered that a vega in Andalusia has more in common with a huerta of Valencia than with a vega (for example the desolate, barren and scarcely cultivated Vega de Tera, near the river Esla) in northern Spain.
The fertility of alluvial soil is here augmented by small-scale irrigation schemes, some of Arab origin and design, which enable a great profusion of both tropical and Mediterranean crops to be grown. Sugar cane, bananas, rice and cotton flourish, sufficient indication of a beneficent climate, while Almería and Málaga produce several varieties of grapes, those from Almería providing table grapes and a medium quality of wine, and those from Málaga providing rich sweet wines of muscatel type. Olives thrive on the drier hill-slopes, particularly at Alora and Vélez Málaga, and cork oaks occur near Málaga and around Níjar, where extensive new groves, recently planted, have not yet come into bearing. Beyond the cultivated zones there are vast areas of exceptional aridity, such as the Alpujarras, where cultivation is impossible. In fact the south coast consists of small cultivated plots of incredible fertility -- oases of green in a dry, dusty upland.
Some minerals are found in this area, for example iron and a little gold at Rodalquilar in Almería, but as deposits are small they are not extensively worked. There is no industrial area, but industry, such as it is, is concentrated in the main towns. Fishing takes place along the coast, and the catch, for local use only, includes anchovies, sardines, tunny, squid and lobsters.
Andalusia is the most Spanish part of Spain
Andalusia is regarded as the most 'Spanish' part of Spain, although its name is thought to be a corruption of 'Vandalicia'. Even in winter it is warm and sunny, while in summer the brilliant light reflected off the whitewashed walls produces harsh contrasts of colour. In the countryside agricultural workers live in 'picturesque' cottages of adobe, or in huge cortijas, large country farmhouses built around a central patio, or courtyard, and housing owner, workers, cattle, sheep, chickens and crops in noisy and untidy proximity. Even more interesting to a north European are the caves of the gipsies at Córdoba, Jaén and Granada.
These are by no means peculiar to Andalusia, and, particularly in Granada, money from gullible tourists has brought electric light and other modern conveniences to these otherwise primitive dwellings. Orange trees, date palms, the dark faces of beggars (begging is illegal but ubiquitous in Andalusia) all combine to provide a note of oriental or at least African flamboyance in Andalusia, a note which is augmented literally and metaphorically in well-known restaurants by the throbbing of guitars, the clacking of castanets and the swirling rhythm of flamenco dancers.
These attractive scenes, however, are superficial; they do not reveal the slum tenements, the leprosy colony in the hills, the diseases, such as rickets and blindness, for which abject poverty is mainly to blame. Andalusia is lovely to visit, less lovely to live in.
These are by no means peculiar to Andalusia, and, particularly in Granada, money from gullible tourists has brought electric light and other modern conveniences to these otherwise primitive dwellings. Orange trees, date palms, the dark faces of beggars (begging is illegal but ubiquitous in Andalusia) all combine to provide a note of oriental or at least African flamboyance in Andalusia, a note which is augmented literally and metaphorically in well-known restaurants by the throbbing of guitars, the clacking of castanets and the swirling rhythm of flamenco dancers.
These attractive scenes, however, are superficial; they do not reveal the slum tenements, the leprosy colony in the hills, the diseases, such as rickets and blindness, for which abject poverty is mainly to blame. Andalusia is lovely to visit, less lovely to live in.
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